Lesson 26: The Modern Middle East, Oil, Islamism and the Rise of Al-Qaeda
🎧 Audio narration for this lesson is coming soon.
The modern Middle East was shaped by the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, European mandates, the discovery of oil, the creation of Israel, Cold War rivalries, Arab nationalism and varieties of political Islam. Two events in 1979 — the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan — proved especially consequential for later transnational jihadist organisations.
The Afghan war and the formation of Al-Qaeda
During the 1980s thousands of Muslim volunteers travelled to Afghanistan to fight the Soviet occupation. Osama bin Laden, a Saudi national, became a prominent organiser and funder of Arab fighters and, together with Abdullah Azzam, was associated with the Maktab al-Khidamat (Services Office). By late 1987–1988 a smaller group around bin Laden began to form what became known as Al-Qaeda (“the Base”). Primary documents and later autobiographical accounts place organisational meetings in 1988. After the Soviet withdrawal, bin Laden and associates redirected their efforts against what they regarded as corrupt regimes in Muslim-majority countries and against the United States as their principal external supporter.
The 1990–91 Gulf War and the subsequent stationing of U.S. forces in Saudi Arabia featured prominently in Al-Qaeda’s public statements. Attacks attributed to the organisation or its affiliates include the 1998 East Africa embassy bombings, the 2000 attack on the USS Cole, and the 11 September 2001 attacks on New York and Washington. The U.S. response included the invasion of Afghanistan (2001) and, in 2003, the invasion of Iraq. The latter removed Saddam Hussein but contributed to a period of prolonged instability and the later rise of the Islamic State (ISIS).
Sources and caution
Key primary materials include Al-Qaeda’s own statements, documents captured in Afghanistan, the 9/11 Commission Report, and court records. High-quality secondary accounts include Lawrence Wright’s The Looming Tower and Steve Coll’s Ghost Wars. Conspiracy claims that deny Al-Qaeda’s responsibility for the 11 September attacks are incompatible with the forensic, documentary and testimonial record assembled by official investigations and independent researchers.
Selected references
- National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. The 9/11 Commission Report. 2004.
- Wright, Lawrence. The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. Knopf, 2006.
- Coll, Steve. Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden... Penguin, 2004.
- Cragin, R. Kim. “Early History of Al-Qa’ida.” The Historical Journal 51, no. 4 (2008): 1047–1067.
- Bergen, Peter L. The Osama bin Laden I Know. Free Press, 2006.
📝 Additional Quiz — Middle East & Al-Qaeda
1. Two 1979 events widely treated as turning points for later jihadist mobilisation are:
Show answer
a)
2. A major primary/official source for the 11 September 2001 attacks is:
Show answer
a) The official 9/11 Commission Report (2004), together with court records and captured documents.
1. What two 1979 events are widely regarded as turning points for later jihadist mobilisation?
The Iranian Revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
2. Name one major primary or official source for the 11 September 2001 attacks.
The 9/11 Commission Report (2004).
Further Learning — Free University Resources
- Open Culture — Modern Middle East and related history courses from major universities (see History section)
- Recommended reading paired with the lesson: Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower; Steve Coll, Ghost Wars; the official 9/11 Commission Report (public domain / freely available)
- edX and university platforms periodically offer courses on terrorism studies, Middle East politics and international security that can be audited.
edX courses can usually be audited for free (videos + readings; graded work and certificates require upgrade). Open Culture aggregates free courses and lectures from Yale, Stanford, Harvard, MIT, Oxford, CMU and others.